汞暴露对儿童免疫系统影响的研究进展

doi:10.12372/jcp.2025.24e1368

Abstract

Abstract:

Mercury (Hg) is a heavy metal that poses severe health risks to children. Mercury can cause irreversible damage to the nervous system, and its mechanisms have been extensively studied. However, the effects of mercury exposure on the immune system remain poorly understood. This review synthesizes the immunotoxicity of different forms of mercury and heir associated toxicological mechanisms,elucidating the multiple pathways by which mercury exposure impairs immune function, including its impact on immune cells, immunoglobulins, and cytokines. Additionally, this article examines the potential correlations between mercury exposure and childhood autoimmune diseases as well as cancer. Nutrients such as selenium and vitamin E may offer protective effects against mercury exposure. Despite these findings, the precise immunotoxicity mechanisms of mercury remain unclear, underscoring the need for further standardized research to delineate its effects and develop effective intervention strategies.

Key words: methyl-mercury, mercury exposure, immunologic effect, child

CLC Number:

CUI Xinyi, YAN Chonghuai. Research progress of the effects of mercury exposure on the immune system in children[J].Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2025, 43(10): 792-797.

References 49

[1]	Parida L, Patel TN. Systemic impact of heavy metals and their role in cancer development: a review[J]. Environ Monit Assess, 2023, 195(6): 766. doi: 10.1007/s10661-023-11399-z pmid: 37249740
[2]	Balali-Mood M, Naseri K, Tahergorabi Z, et al. Toxic mechanisms of five heavy metals: mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, and arsenic[J]. Front Pharmacol, 2021, 12: 643972.
[3]	Carocci A, Rovito N, Sinicropi MS, et al. Mercury toxicity and neurodegenerative effects[J]. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol, 2014, 229: 1-18. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-03777-6_1 pmid: 24515807
[4]	冯永全, 耿雪, 胡静, 等. 28d灌胃给予氯化甲基汞对Wistar雌性大鼠免疫系统影响的研究[J]. 毒理学杂志, 2015, 29(2): 102-105.
	Feng YQ, Geng X, Hu J, et al. Immunotoxicity assessment of Methyl mercuty chloride in female rats after 28-day oral exposure[J]. Dulixue Zazhi, 2015, 29(2): 102-105.
[5]	李玄, 王锐, 尹大强. 饮用水汞暴露对小鼠免疫系统的毒性[J]. 环境化学, 2014, 33(9): 1427-1432.
	Li X, Wang Y, Yin DQ. Immunotoxic effects of mercury exposure via drinking water[J]. Huanjing Huaxue, 2014, 33(9): 1427-1432.
[6]	李倩, 郁馨纯, 张燕东, 等. 经饮水甲基汞对小鼠脾脏中成熟免疫细胞影响的时间-效应特征[J]. 环境与职业医学, 2017, 34(3): 264-720.
	Li Q, Yu XC, Zhang YD, et al. Time-effect features of methyl mercury exposure via drinking on mature immune cells in spleen of mice[J]. Huanjing Yu Zhiye Yixue, 2017, 34(3): 264-270.
[7]	Levin M, Jasperse L, Desforges JP, et al. Methyl mercury (MeHg) in vitro exposure alters mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine expression in Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) pups[J]. Sci Total Environ, 2020, 725: 138308.
[8]	Silva-Pereira LC, da Rocha CA, Cunha LR, et al. Protective effect of prolactin against methylmercury-induced mutagenicity and cytotoxicity on human lymphocytes[J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2014, 11(9): 9822-9834.
[9]	Zheng K, Zeng Z, Tian Q, et al. Epidemiological evidence for the effect of environmental heavy metal exposure on the immune system in children[J]. Sci Total Environ, 2023, 868: 161691.
[10]	冀军, 刘扬. 汞对免疫球蛋白IgG分子构象的体外研究[J]. 高分子通报, 2019, (8): 29-34.
	Ji J, Liu Y. In vitro Study of Mercury and Immunoglobulin IgG[J]. Gaofenzi Tongbao, 2019, (8): 29-34.
[11]	宋文超. 铅、镉、汞对小鼠免疫毒性的研究[D]. 延边大学, 2018.
	Song WC. The immunotoxicity of lead, cadmiun and mercury in mice[D]. Yanbian Daxue, 2018.
[12]	Abu Zeid EH, Khalifa BA, Said EN, et al. Neurobehavioral and immune-toxic impairments induced by organic methyl mercury dietary exposure in Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus[J]. Aquat Toxicol, 2021, 230: 105702.
[13]	Ahn H, Kim J, Kang SG, et al. Mercury and arsenic attenuate canonical and non-canonical NLRP3 inflam-masome activation[J]. Sci Rep, 2018, 8(1): 13659.
[14]	Hui LL, Chan MHM, Lam HS, et al. Impact of fetal and childhood mercury exposure on immune status in children[J]. Environ Res, 2016, 144(Pt A): 66-72. doi: S0013-9351(15)30133-X pmid: 26562044
[15]	Al-Mazroua HA, Nadeem A, Ansari MA, et al. Methy-lmercury chloride exposure exacerbates existing neurobehavioral and immune dysfunctions in the BTBR T(+) Itpr3(tf)/J mouse model of autism[J]. Immunol Lett, 2022, 244: 19-27. doi: 10.1016/j.imlet.2022.03.001 pmid: 35259423
[16]	Ahmad SF, Bakheet SA, Ansari MA, et al. Methylmercury chloride exposure aggravates proinflammatory mediators and Notch-1 signaling in CD14(+) and CD40(+) cells and is associated with imbalance of neuroimmune function in BTBR T(+) Itpr3tf/J mice[J]. Neurotoxicology, 2021, 82: 9-17.
[17]	Yamamoto M, Khan N, Muniroh M, et al. Activation of interleukin-6 and -8 expressions by methylmercury in human U937 macrophages involves RelA and p50[J]. J Appl Toxicol, 2017, 37(5): 611-620. doi: 10.1002/jat.3411 pmid: 27917510
[18]	Monastero RN, Vacchi-Suzzi C, Marsit C, et al. Expression of genes involved in stress, toxicity, inflammation, and autoimmunity in relation to cadmium, mercury, and lead in human blood: a pilot study[J]. Toxics, 2018, 6(3): 35.
[19]	Carruthers NJ, Rosenspire AJ, Caruso JA, et al. Low level Hg(2+) exposure modulates the B-cell cytoskeletal phosphoproteome[J]. J Proteomics, 2018, 173: 107-114. doi: S1874-3919(17)30409-8 pmid: 29199152
[20]	Caruso JA, Carruthers N, Shin N, et al. Mercury alters endogenous phosphorylation profiles of SYK in murine B cells[J]. BMC Immunol, 2017, 18(1): 37. doi: 10.1186/s12865-017-0221-0 pmid: 28716125
[21]	Dupont A, De Pauw-Gillet MC, Schnitzler J, et al. Effects of methylmercury on harbour seal peripheral blood leucocytes in vitro studied by electron microscopy[J]. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol, 2016, 70(1): 133-142.
[22]	Migdal C, Foggia L, Tailhardat M, et al. Sensitization effect of thimerosal is mediated in vitro via reactive oxygen species and calcium signaling[J]. Toxicology, 2010, 274(1-3): 1-9. doi: 10.1016/j.tox.2010.04.016 pmid: 20457211
[23]	Ren Z, Liu J, Huang W, et al. Antioxidant defenses and immune responses of flounder Paralichthys olivaceus larvae under methylmercury exposure[J]. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol, 2019, 225: 108589.
[24]	Moniruzzaman M, Lee S, Park Y, et al. Evaluation of dietary selenium, vitamin C and E as the multi-antioxidants on the methylmercury intoxicated mice based on mercury bioaccumulation, antioxidant enzyme activity, lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial oxidative stress[J]. Chemosphere, 2021, 273: 129673.
[25]	Benvenga S, Famà F, Perdichizzi LG, et al. Fish and the thyroid: a janus bifrons relationship caused by pollutants and the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids[J]. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 2022, 13: 891233.
[26]	Wei Y, Ni L, Pan J, et al. Methylmercury promotes oxidative stress and autophagy in rat cerebral cortex: involvement of PI3K/AKT/mTOR or AMPK/TSC2/mTOR pathways and attenuation by N-acetyl-L-cysteine[J]. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 2022, 95: 107137.
[27]	Shinde A, Sharma R, Kumar P, et al. Combined effect of mercury and ammonia toxicity and its mitigation through selenium nanoparticles in fish[J]. Aquat Toxicol, 2025, 280: 107270.
[28]	Alhusaini A, Alghilani S, Alhuqbani W, et al. Vitamin E and lactobacillus provide protective effects against liver injury induced by HgCl(2): role of CHOP, GPR87, and mTOR proteins[J]. Dose Response, 2021, 19(2): 15593258211011360.
[29]	Shalan MG. Amelioration of mercuric chloride-induced physiologic and histopathologic alterations in rats using vitamin E and zinc chloride supplement[J]. Heliyon, 2022, 8(12): e12036.
[30]	Crowe W, Allsopp PJ, Nyland JF, et al. Inflammatory response following in vitro exposure to methylmercury with and without n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from systemic lupus erythematosus patients compared to healthy controls[J]. Toxicol In Vitro, 2018, 52: 272-278. doi: S0887-2333(18)30185-1 pmid: 29778720
[31]	Pollard KM, Cauvi DM, Toomey CB, et al. Mercury-induced inflammation and autoimmunity[J]. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj, 2019, 1863(12): 129299.
[32]	Yeter D, Deth R, Kuo HC. Mercury promotes cate-cholamines which potentiate mercurial autoimmunity and vasodilation: implications for inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate 3-kinase C susceptibility in kawasaki syndrome[J]. Korean Circ J, 2013, 43(9): 581-591.
[33]	Häggqvist B, Havarinasab S, Björn E, et al. The immunosuppressive effect of methylmercury does not preclude development of autoimmunity in genetically susceptible mice[J]. Toxicology, 2005, 208(1): 149-164. pmid: 15664442
[34]	Chang LS, Yan JH, Li JY, et al. Blood mercury levels in children with Kawasaki disease and disease outcome[J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020, 17(10): 3762.
[35]	Yanai T, Yoshida S, Takeuchi M, et al. Association between maternal heavy metal exposure and Kawasaki disease, the Japan Environment and Children's Study (JECS)[J]. Sci Rep, 2024, 14(1): 9947. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-60830-z pmid: 38689029
[36]	Bjørklund G, Dadar M, Aaseth J. Delayed-type hypersensitivity to metals in connective tissue diseases and fibromyalgia[J]. Environ Res, 2018, 161: 573-579. doi: S0013-9351(17)31728-0 pmid: 29245125
[37]	Amirhosseini M, Alkaissi H, Hultman PA, et al. Autoantibodies in outbred Swiss Webster mice following exposure to gold and mercury[J]. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 2021, 412: 115379.
[38]	Pamphlett R, Kum Jew S. Mercury is taken up selectively by cells involved in joint, bone, and connective tissue disorders[J]. Front Med (Lausanne), 2019, 6: 168.
[39]	Kim KN, Bae S, Park HY, et al. Low-level mercury exposure and risk of asthma in school-age children[J]. Epidemiology, 2015, 26(5): 733-739.
[40]	Smith AR, Lin PD, Rifas-Shiman SL, et al. Prenatal blood metals, per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances and antigen-or mitogen-stimulated cord blood lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine secretion[J]. Environ Res, 2024, 259: 119555.
[41]	Lee JY, Choi YH, Choi HI, et al. Association between environmental mercury exposure and allergic disorders in Korean children: Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) cycles 3-4 (2015-2020)[J]. Sci Rep, 2024, 14(1): 1472.
[42]	Shin J, Kim BM, Ha M, et al. The Association between mercury exposure and atopic dermatitis in early childhood: a mothers and children's environmental health study[J]. Epidemiology, 2019, 30 Suppl 1: S3-S8.
[43]	Miyazaki J, Ikehara S, Tanigawa K, et al. Prenatal exposure to selenium, mercury, and manganese during pregnancy and allergic diseases in early childhood: the Japan environment and children's study[J]. Environ Int, 2023, 179: 108123.
[44]	Carrasco P, Estarlich M, Iñiguez C, et al. Pre and postnatal exposure to mercury and respiratory health in preschool children from the Spanish INMA birth cohort study[J]. Sci Total Environ, 2021, 782: 146654.
[45]	Heinrich J, Guo F, Trepka MJ. Brief report: low-level mercury exposure and risk of asthma in school-age children[J]. Epidemiology, 2017, 28(1): 116-118. pmid: 27755278
[46]	Wu KG, Chang CY, Yen CY, et al. Associations between environmental heavy metal exposure and childhood asthma: A population-based study[J]. J Microbiol Immunol Infect, 2019, 52(2): 352-362.
[47]	Feiler MO, Kulick ER, Sinclair K, et al. Toxic metals and pediatric clinical immune dysfunction: A systematic review of the epidemiological evidence[J]. Sci Total Environ, 2024, 927: 172303.
[48]	Zefferino R, Piccoli C, Ricciardi N, et al. Possible mechanisms of mercury toxicity and cancer promotion: involvement of gap junction intercellular communications and inflammatory cytokines[J]. Oxid Med Cell Longev, 2017, 2017: 7028583.
[49]	Skalny AV, Aschner M, Sekacheva MI, et al. Mercury and cancer: Where are we now after two decades of research?[J]. Food Chem Toxicol, 2022, 164: 113001.

Research progress of the effects of mercury exposure on the immune system in children

RichHTML

PDF (PC)

Like

Knowledge

Abstract

Cite this article

share this article

References 49

Related Articles 15

Metrics

Comments

Recommended 0

[1]	LIN Jinfeng, CHEN Yi, DENG Yan, FENG Ai, HUANG Juan, CHEN Lizhu, XIE Jingqi, NIE Xiaojing. A comparative study on the detection of anti-Nephrin antibodies in children's nephrotic syndrome by chemiluminescence method and cell-based assay [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(8): 682-689.
[2]	ZHENG Fangyuan, WANG Miao, DING Mingming, LU Aidong, JIA Yueping, ZENG Huimin, ZHANG Leping. Next-generation sequencing identified gene variants and their prognostic impact in pediatric Philadelphia chromosome positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(8): 690-697.
[3]	ZHANG Xiao, FANG Hongjun, KUANG Xiaojun, WANG Lijuan, WU Zhao, JIANG Sha, LI Pei, WU Liwen. Analysis of the clinical and electrophysiological characteristics of atonic seizures in children [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(8): 698-704.
[4]	WANG Mengqian, YANG Hui. Case series analysis of 13 intestinal Behcet’s syndrome in children [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(8): 705-711.
[5]	WU Xirong, GAO Qi, GUO Siyuan, YIN Qingqin, QIN Qiang, YIN Ju, JIAO Anxia, CHEN Chenghao, WU Di, WANG Bei, DUAN Xiaomin, PENG Yun, XU Baoping, GAO Liwei. Clinical characteristics and prognosis of pulmonary mucormycosis in children with diabetes mellitus [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(8): 712-720.
[6]	HAN Yanan, GE Lanlan, CUI Jieyuan. A case report of branchio-oto-renal syndrome caused by EYA1 gene variant with a 6-year follow-up [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(8): 721-726.
[7]	SHI Jiayi, GAO Chunlin, JIA Lili, LU Yunyun, SUN Tao, ZHU Xiaodong, XIA Zhengkun, ZHANG Pei. Phenotypic characteristics and prognostic analysis of a pedigree with childhood isolated nephrotic syndrome caused by compound heterozygous mutations in the COQ2 gene [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(8): 727-732.
[8]	Rachel Rosen, Osvaldo Borrelli, Christophe Faure, Katja Karrento, Usha Krishnan, Samuel Nurko, Nathalie Rommel, Alan Silverman, Michiel van Wijk, Marc Benninga (Author), Chinese Medical Association Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Branch Pediatrics Group, The Subspecialty Group of Gastroenterology, The Society of Pediatric, Chinese Medical Association, Gastroenterology Group, Pediatrician Branch, Chinese Medical Doctor Association (Translator). Core interpretation and explanation of Rome Ⅴ diagnostic criteria: upper gastrointestinal disorders of gut-brain interaction in children and adolescents [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(7): 595-608.
[9]	Carlo Di Lorenzo, Miguel Saps, Bruno P. Chumpitazi, Shaman Rajindrajith, Annamaria Staiano, Nikhil Thapar, Miranda van Tilburg, Carlos Velasco-Benítez, Arine Vlieger (Author), Chinese Medical Association Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition Branch Pediatrics Group, The Subspecialty Group of Gastroenterology, The Society of Pediatric, Chinese Medical Association, Gastroenterology Group, Pediatrician Branch, Chinese Medical Doctor Association (Translator). Core interpretation and explanation of Rome Ⅴ diagnostic criteria: lower and biliary disorders of gut-brain interaction in children and adolescents [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(7): 609-621.
[10]	LI Xufeng, TANG Haoxun, LI Xingjun, ZHANG Lize, GAO Chenqing, ZHAO Shunying, LIU Jianhua. Clinical characteristics, chest CT imaging phenotypes, and their correlation with prognosis in 76 children with Chlamydia pneumoniae pneumonia [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(7): 622-627.
[11]	WANG Zhen, SHAO Jingbo, ZHANG Na, XIA Min, ZHU Jiashi, DU Chengkan, LI Hong. Factors influencing long-term recurrence in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients with low-risk disease at initial diagnosis: a five-year follow-up analysis of 254 cases from a single center [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(7): 628-635.
[12]	GUO Xuemei, XUE Yao, WANG Yongren, RONG Liucheng, FANG Yongjun, LIN Rufeng. Clinical features and prognosis of childhood acute myeloid leukemia with CBFA2T3::GLIS2 fusion [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(7): 636-643.
[13]	YANG Lijun, FU Dongxia, CUI Yan, YANG Junmei, ZHANG Liming. Clinical manifestation and genetic analysis of CHARGE syndrome caused by CHD7 gene variation [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(7): 644-650.
[14]	HU Yan, YANG Fan, LIANG Aimin, MAO Meng. Identification and management of faltering growth in children: insights from the 13th International Conference on Nutrition and Growth [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(6): 485-488.
[15]	LIU Ziyao, WANG Congying, WANG Hongmao, ZHANG Mingming, XU Yingjie, LAI Jianming, NIU Wenquan, LI Xiaohui. Early differentiation of Kawasaki disease with joint symptoms and systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis with Kawasaki disease-like symptoms: a single-center retrospective study [J]. Journal of Clinical Pediatrics, 2026, 44(6): 489-498.